Abstract: RAF near point rule (RNPR) is a routinely used instrument in ophthalmology and optometry practice as well as for research purposes to measure the near point of convergence (NPC). The measurement of NPC is an important criterion for diagnosis and management of convergence insufficiency. The RNPR forms an important tool for ophthalmic clinicians however, only a very little is understood about it. This article tries to describe and review the designs, measurement techniques, merits and demerits of the RNPR and establish the need for its modification. It recommends that clinicians and researchers consider these findings while measuring NPC with the RNPR.

Abstract: Glaucoma is now the second leading reason of blindness in the world and is characterized by gradual loss of retinal ganglion cells. Stem cells have the ability to regenerate human structures. Although there are still problems unsolved, stem cell therapy might provide brighter future for treatment of glaucoma.

Abstract: We reviewed randomized controlled trials associated with the intravitreal use of aflibercept for this article. These studies proved that aflibercept is an effective anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agent for the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), myopic choroidal neovascularization (mCNV), diabetic macular edema (DME), and macular edema associated with retinal vein occlusion. The incidence of severe ocular or systemic complications after intravitreal administration of aflibercept was low.

Abstract: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complex multifactorial disease and one of the leading causes of visual impairment worldwide. DR pathogenesis is still not completely understood and, even if studies performed in the past focused on microvascular dysfunction as the main event, growing body of scientific evidence has demonstrated an important role of inflammation and neurodegeneration in the onset and progression of DR. This review summarizes current literature on the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis and progression of DR. In particular, it focuses on clinical inflammatory biomarkers detectable with non-invasive retinal imaging, suggestive of a local inflammatory condition. Current available treatments are applicable only at advanced stages of disease, therefore, there is the need to detect biomarkers of subclinical or early DR that can help in DR management before irreversible damage occurs. A better understanding of inflammatory pathways involved in DR may permit to implement more specific and personalized therapeutic strategies and clinical biomarkers may be a helpful tool in the everyday clinical practice to direct the patient to the most appropriate treatment option.

Abstract: Despite appropriate management of the systemic disease, patients with diabetes may develop severe forms of diabetic retinopathy that require surgery. Non-clearing vitreous haemorrhage (VH), traction retinal detachment involving the macula, combined traction and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, progressive fibrovascular proliferation (PFP) and rubeosis with acute VH represent the main indications for surgery. Vitrectomy techniques and surgical tools have developed dramatically in the last decade in order to help the surgeon succeed in these challenging cases.

Abstract: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most common microvascular complication in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM), and remains the single greatest cause of blindness in working age adults around the world. In this article, we review the evolution of pharmacotherapies for both diabetic macular edema (DME) and DR such as anti-vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors and various steroid formulations, as well as other emerging pharmacotherapies currently in late stage clinical testing for this disease.

Background: In recent years posterior corneal astigmatism and its effect on total corneal astigmatism has been studied, with research showing that this can impact total astigmatism. This study aims to ascertain if there is significant change in the posterior corneal astigmatism after cataract surgery and its impact on the total astigmatism.

Methods: Analysis of 76 eyes that underwent cataract surgery with monofocal intraocular lens implantation. Corneal topography was performed with Pentacam (OCULUS^?) pre- and post-operatively. Total corneal astigmatism was calculated with the algorithm of vergence tracing. We compared preoperative and postoperative changes in the magnitude and axis differences of anterior corneal curvature astigmatism, posterior corneal curvature astigmatism and the calculated total corneal astigmatism. We calculated the correlation between the total preoperative astigmatism and the difference between total corneal astigmatism and anterior corneal astigmatism.

Results: The mean preoperative and postoperative posterior astigmatism was 0.31±0.02 D, showing no significant differences before and after surgery (P=0.989). Statistically significant differences between the calculated total corneal astigmatism and anterior corneal astigmatism were registered preoperatively and postoperatively in the with-the-rule anterior (WTR) corneal astigmatism (P=0.004, P<0.0001); against-the-rule (ATR) anterior corneal astigmatism (P<0.0001, P<0.0001) and in the oblique (P=0.026, P=0.019) subgroups. The posterior corneal astigmatism and the total corneal astigmatism correlated positively with the differences between the total corneal and anterior corneal astigmatism (R=0.378, P=0.001).

Conclusions: There were statistically significant differences between the magnitude of the total astigmatism and anterior corneal astigmatism, underlining the impact of posterior corneal astigmatism. A positive correlation between the preoperative posterior astigmatism and the difference between the total corneal and the anterior corneal astigmatism suggests a specially relevant role of posterior corneal astigmatism when evaluating patients with higher degrees of astigmatism.