Abstract: Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a proliferative disorder of the developing retina in premature and low birth weight infants. Recently, the role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the pathophysiology of ROP has been well studied and anti-VEGF drugs have been used in phase 2 to treat ROP patients in many ways. At first, ophthalmologists began to give intravitreal bevacizumab (IVB) or ranibizumab off-label to treat ROP as a salvage treatment after failure in laser photocoagulation or in combination with laser as an adjuvant treatment for patients had media opacity or rigid pupil. Now anti-VEGF drugs are also used as monotherapy in type I ROP or perioperative use in stage 4/5 ROP. Questions remain regarding long-term safety, dose, timing, visual outcomes and long-term effects, including systemically.

Abstract: To describe the current aging population in China and globally, especially as it applies to age-related macular degeneration (AMD). To review the current standards of care for treating both wet (exudative) eAMD and dry (atrophic) aAMD. And to introduce a model for experimentation that is based on the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) using eye bank tissue. A literature search that outlines current aging populations, standards of clinical treatment as defined by large, multicenter, randomized clinical trials that present level-I data with a low risk for bias. An experimental model system of AMD is presented that enables scientific analysis of AMD pathogenesis by applying grading criteria from the AREDS to human eye bank eyes. Analysis includes proteomic, cellular, and functional genomics. The standard of care for the treatment of eAMD is currently defined by the use of several anti-vascular endothelial growth (anti-VEGF) agents alone or in combination with photodynamic therapy. Monotherapy treatment intervals may be monthly, as needed, or by using a treat-and-extend (TAE) protocol. There are no proven therapies for aAMD. AMD that is phenotypically defined at AREDS level 3, should be managed with the use of anti-oxidant vitamins, lutein/zeaxanthin and zinc (AREDS-2 formulation). By understanding the multiple etiologies in the pathogenesis of AMD (i.e., oxidative stress, inflammation, and genetics), the use of human eye bank tissues graded according to the Minnesota Grading System (MGS) will enable future insights into the pathogenesis of AMD. Initial AMD management is with lifestyle modification such as avoiding smoking, eating a healthy diet and using appropriate vitamin supplements (AREDS-2). For eAMD, anti-VEGF therapies using either pro re nata (PRN) or TAE protocols are recommended, with photodynamic therapy in appropriate cases. New cellular information will direct future, potential therapies and these will originate from experimental models, such as the proposed eye bank model using the MGS, that leverages the prospective AREDS database.

Abstract: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) remains a leading cause of severe visual impairment in developing countries. Although dry-type AMD and geographic atrophy (GA) are progressive conditions with the associated decrease of visual functions, no well-established treatment regimen was proposed for the disease. Wet-type AMD is effectively treated with intravitreal anti-angiogenic agents, but frequent injections are a major issue for the affected patients. Recent advances in AMD genetics have provided new insights into the pathogenesis and novel therapeutic targets of AMD, but the benefits of using genetic testing and genotype-based risk models for AMD development and progression still lacks evidence. Novel AMD treatments aim to increase the interval among intravitreal injections through new therapeutic agents and modern delivery devices. Simultaneously, gene therapy for dry and wet AMD is widely studied. Although gene therapy possesses a major superiority over other novel treatments regarding a persistent cure of disease, many challenges exist in the way of its broad impact on the ocular health of AMD patients.

Abstract: Macular neovascularization (MNV) is the hallmark of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), one of the leading causes of vision loss in the developed world. The current MNV standard of care including frequent intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) injections, although has revolutionized favorably the treatment, places a substantial burden on patients, caregivers, and physicians. Brolucizumab is a newly developed single-chain antibody fragment that inhibits activation of VEGF receptor 2 with in vitro affinity and potency comparable to commercially-available anti-VEGF agents. Its small molecular weight and its design allow for high solubility and retinal tissue penetration, and improve bynding affinity to the target. Also a high clearance rate leading to minimal systemic exposure was observed. Brolucizumab has shown similar gains in visual acuity compared with other anti-VEGF molecules but a higher and earlier resolution of nAMD related fluid, achieving sustained macular dryness with longer mantainance injection interval ranging from 8 to 12 weeks after monthly loading doses. Rare cases of ocular inflammation also including retinal vasculitis and retinal vascular occlusions referred to an immune-mediated reaction posed safety concerns on selected patients and mantainance treatment interval shorter than 8 weeks.The present review summarizes several key points including the molecular structure and pharmacokinetics, the preclinical and clinical evidence of brolucizumab administration evaluating its efficacy, tolerability, and safety, extended dosing regimens and other indications still under clinical investigation.

Abstract: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of blindness worldwide. AMD most commonly affects older individuals and is characterized by irreversible degeneration of the retinal pigment epithelium and neurosensory retina. Currently, there are limited treatment options for dry AMD outside of lifestyle modification and nutrient supplementation. Risuteganib [Luminate (ALG-1001), Allegro Ophthalmics, CA, USA] is an intravitreally administered inhibitor of integrin heterodimers αVβ3, αVβ5, α5β1, and αMβ2. It is currently undergoing clinical trials for the treatment of dry AMD and diabetic macular edema (DME). Preclinical studies have shown that risuteganib has an effect on the pathways for angiogenesis, inflammation, and vascular permeability. Ongoing clinical trials have had promising results showing improvements in patient best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and reduced central macular thickness measured by optical coherence tomography (OCT). There is a pressing need for treatments for dry AMD and while risuteganib appears to have a potential benefit for patients, more data are needed before one can truly evaluate its efficacy. This narrative review provides a concise summary of the most up to date data regarding the proposed mechanism of action of risuteganib in the treatment of nonexudative AMD and DME as well as the results from recent phase 1 and phase 2 clinical trials.

Abstract: Statins are used widely to treat hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. They have inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects potentially useful for managing systemic autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus erythematosus and multiple sclerosis. Statins also have anti-oxidative and large-vessel endothelial supportive properties that occur independent of their lipid-lowering effects. Additionally, statins can suppress macrophage and microglial activation responsible for initiating inflammatory cytokine release. More than forty percent of adults aged 65 years or older use statins in the United States and Australia, a prevalence that increases with age. The effects of statin usage on ophthalmic practice are probably underrecognized. Cardiovascular disease and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) share common risk factors, consistent with the “vascular model” of AMD pathogenesis that implicates impaired choroidal circulation in Bruch’s membrane lipoprotein accumulation. AMD has a complex multifactorial pathogenesis involving oxidative stress, choroidal vascular dysfunction, dysregulated complement-cascade-mediated inflammation and pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic growth factors. Many of these components are hypothetically amenable to the primary (cholesterol lowering) and secondary (anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-vasculopathy) effects of statin use. Experimental studies have been promising, epidemiological trails have produced conflicting results and three prospective clinical trials have been inconclusive at demonstrating the value of statin therapy for delaying or preventing AMD. Cumulative evidence to date has failed to prove conclusively that statins are beneficial for preventing or treating AMD.

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review current literature and data regarding treatment options for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) related to mitochondrial therapy. This article considers the presence of flavoprotein fluorescence as a potential biomarker to test the effectiveness of the treatments. We focus primarily on two major mitochondrial targets, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (NFE2L2) and PGC-1α, that function in controlling the production and effects of reactive oxidative species (ROS) directly in the mitochondria. PU-91 is an FDA approved drug that directly targets and upregulates PGC-1α in AMD cybrid cell lines. Although neither NFE2L2 nor PGC1-α have yet been tested in clinical trials, their effects have been studied in rodent models and offer promising results. MTP-131, or elamipretide^?, and metformin are two drugs in phase II clinical trials that focus on the treatment of advanced, non-exudative AMD. MTP-131 functions by associating with cardiolipin (CL) whereas metformin targets adenosine-monophosphate protein kinase (AMPK) in the mitochondria. The current results of their clinical trials are elucidated in this article. The molecular targets and drugs reviewed in this article show promising results in the treatment of AMD. These targets can be further pursued to improve and refine treatment practices of this diagnosis.

Abstract: Submacular haemorrhage (SMH) is a sight threatening complication that can occur in exudative age related macular degeneration (AMD), but has been described to occur more frequently in eyes with polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV). Left untreated, SMH carries a grave visual prognosis. Thus, expedient diagnosis and effective management of this complication is of paramount importance. The treatment strategies for SMH include (I) displacement of blood from the fovea, usually by injection of an expansile gas; (II) pharmacologic clot lysis such as with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA); and (III) treatment of the underlying choroidal neovascularization (CNV) or PCV, such as with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) agents. These three strategies have been employed in isolation or in combination, some concurrently and others in stages. rtPA has demonstrable effect on the liquefaction of submacular clots but there are remaining uncertainties with regards to the dose, safety and the timing of initial and repeat treatments. Potential side effects of rtPA include retinal pigment epithelial toxicity, increased risk of breakthrough vitreous haemorrhage and systemic toxicity. In cases presenting early, pneumatic displacement alone with anti-VEGF may be sufficient. Anti-VEGF monotherapy is a viable treatment option particularly in patients with thinner SMH and those who are unable to posture post pneumatic displacement.